Part One: First Position

Posture and Instrument Hold

The following information assumes that you will use an endpin. In recent times, it is almost universally used to support the cello on the floor while playing, and has changed the playing posture somewhat.

The player sits towards the front of the chair, takes the cello by the neck using the left hand, and fixes it with the endpin so that it stands vertically between the feet. He then turns the cello a little to the right and angles it with the scroll towards him, so that its right side leans slightly against the chest. The left side leans against the bend of the player’s left knee. In this way, the cello has three points of support: the endpin on the floor, the right side of the instrument on the chest, and the left side on the player’s knee.

Bow Hold

The right hand holds the stick of the bow between the thumb and the other four fingers. The tip of the thumb sits in the corner of the frog and the stick. Opposite it—but a little more to the right—is the middle finger, with its tip lightly touching the hair on the ferrule. The ring finger and little finger lie naturally on the frog next to the middle finger. The index finger touches the stick of the bow at the crease of the upper joint, slightly away from the middle finger. Tone production depends on the index finger exerting pressure on the stick. Therefore, the position of the finger changes. It comes to rest on the stick up to the crease of the second joint, and accordingly moves away from the middle finger.

Tuning the Cello

The cello has four strings, which are tuned in ascending fifths from low C.

The lower pitches are notated in bass clef, the higher pitches in the tenor or treble clef. Tuning the strings accurately has its difficulties for the beginner, therefore it is advisable to leave it to the teacher.

Placing the Bow on the String and Guiding the Bow

The part of the string above the body of the instrument (i.e., between the bridge and the end of the fingerboard) is intended for bowing. Depending on where you bow—closer to the fingerboard or closer to the bridge—you can achieve a swelling in the tone, a decreasing of the tone, and the different shadings in the tone that are necessary for expressive playing.

The beginner will not be able to use these means of expression for the time being, and should endeavor only to produce a tone that is consistently even in strength. He achieves this by keeping the bow consistently on only one contact point. This contact point is about four centimeters from the bridge. The player tries to keep the bow parallel to the bridge on the contact point. This is the most difficult thing about bowing because it requires the combined movements of the upper arm and forearm, but mainly wrist movements.

If you take the bow in your hand according to the previous instructions, place the bow-hair on the string at the frog, and move it from the frog to the tip (a “down-bow,” notated as ˄ above the note) with immobile forearm joints, the bow’s trajectory would be curved. The closer you go towards the tip, the more the bow moves with its tip downwards, i.e. towards the bridge. Conversely, if you pull the bow from the tip to the frog (an “up-bow,” notated as ˅ above the note), the tip of the bow travels towards the fingerboard. Therefore, the bow continually shifts its contact point with the string and doesn’t go parallel to the bridge. This would not meet the conditions required for uniform tone production.

The movement of the bow is regulated by the wrist; namely, if one bends the hand to the left, the tip of the bow goes upwards towards the fingerboard. This movement of the hand is therefore used to raise the tip.

Conversely, by bending the hand to the right, the upwards stroke is directed downwards again. Therefore, when bowing at the frog, the hand position must be bent more to the right¹ in order to be able to bend to the left while pulling the bow on a down-bow stroke. Conversely, when the bow is at the tip, the position of the hand is bent to the left² in order to be able to move to the right during the up-bow stroke.

The upper arm, which must not be held too high, does not move until the bow is drawn into the middle of the stick. Only at the frog and tip, where forearm movement alone is no longer sufficient, does the upper arm take part in guiding the bow. The main movement is done by the forearm, which guides the bow on the string; here, as noted earlier, the wrist regulates the direction. In small movements of the bow on the string, the forearm is also almost immobile, and the wrist alone is active. It also serves to cross from one string to another with the bow. By turning the hand slightly to the right, the bow goes from the higher to the lower string. Conversely, turning the hand to the left causes the bow to transition from the lower to the higher string. (A distinction is made between bending to the right and turning to the right: in the first case, the hand keeps the same horizontal surface, and in the second case, the surface is lowered to the right.)

First Exercises in Drawing the Full Bow on the Open Strings

Position of the Left Hand and Fingers

The left thumb rests against the neck of the cello. It does not encircle it, but rather touches it at a point near the nail. The way the player holds the neck of the cello depends on the proportions of the hand and on the ratio of thumb length to the lengths of the other fingers: the shorter the thumb, the less it should encircle the neck. The hand must be slightly curved over the strings in such a way that the thumb is between the index and middle fingers. The contact point of the fingers on the strings must not be too close to the nail. Finger action, as well as finger pressure on the strings, must be as forceful as possible, since as we shall see later, tone production partly depends upon it.

Naming and Labeling of the Fingers

First Position

The player places the first (index) finger on the A-string about 65 millimeters from the nut, presses down firmly, and plays the note against the open D-string. He then adjusts the pitch up and down with the first finger until the interval (a major sixth) is in tune.

Then, he puts his second (middle) finger on the string next to the first with a small space between them. He rests the thumb on the neck of the cello opposite the first two fingers. Then he puts the third and fourth fingers on the string next to the second with a small space between each. The note created with the fourth finger is an octave above the pitch of the open D-string and can easily be adjusted by playing both strings at the same time. This hand position is called first position. All the exercises and examples in this section are in this position.

Above all, the player must take care to learn this position thoroughly, primarily to be able to find it without testing the first and fourth fingers in the way mentioned above. By placing the hand and fingers in the same spots on the other strings, you get first position on the D-, G-, and C-strings. The following notes can be created by placing the four fingers on all four strings:

In the following short examples, containing the accompaniment of a second cello, the first finger stays on the string all the time. The first finger and thumb remain in place; the other fingers are only lifted to allow for a lower-pitched note. 

The first finger stays on the string throughout; the second is not lifted until measure 4.

The first finger stays on the string throughout; the third is not lifted until measure 5.

The first finger stays on the string throughout; the second and third fingers also stay on the string for the first three bars and are only lifted at measure 4.

 

The first finger stays on the string throughout; the second and third fingers also stay on the string for the first three bars and are only lifted at measure 4.

The following examples use the open strings in addition to four fingers. The first finger cannot always stay on the string, and thereby loses its “double hold” position with the thumb; the player’s thumb alone must keep the position in place. In general, it is the thumb that keeps the fixed position on the neck of the cello, since the first finger (as we will soon see) can also change its place within the position. 

Different Strokes

The examples given above should be played using the whole bow. However, the entire length of the bow is not always used. It can also be used partially, and one can generally assume that the length of the stroke is in proportion to the duration of the note value. Whole notes require more bow length than half notes and quarter notes, etc. We therefore differentiate between whole bows, half bows, and short bowstrokes. If only part of the bow is used, as in the case of short bowstrokes, this part can either be near the frog, near the tip, or in the middle of the bow. For half bows, you can either use the half of the bow from frog to middle, or the half from the middle to the tip. In this way, we get six different types of strokes.

If the stroke is very short, such as in the case of eighth notes at a fast tempo, it is performed exclusively with hand movement, with the upper arm and forearm immobile.

The following exercises and examples are designed to familiarize the player with all possible combinations of fingers in the first position on the four strings. The half notes should be executed in a slow tempo with the whole bow, and at a faster tempo with half bows. In the latter case, they should be practiced alternatively from the frog to the middle of the bow, and from the middle to the tip of the bow. The quarter notes should be executed at a slow tempo with half-bow strokes and in a faster tempo with short strokes; in the latter case, the three parts of the bow mentioned above should be used.

Exercises with Whole or Half Bows

In the second case, alternatively from the frog to the middle of the bow, and from the middle to the tip of the bow.

Examples of Short Bowstrokes

Play alternately at the frog, the tip, and the middle.

Bow Speed

If all notes are of the same duration, as in the previous exercises and examples, then the movements of the bow–whether using the full bow, half the bow, or a short bowstroke–will be the same. But if there are notes of unequal duration, or alternating long and short strokes, one will often run into trouble if the bow is guided at the same speed. In the following two-measure example, the third note, which lasts a full measure, would require the whole length of the bow. The second note, however, brings the bow at most to the middle, since as it is a quarter note it is played with a short up-bow stroke.

In this example, the first note could begin at the tip of the bow, otherwise the first stroke would go at most to the middle of the bow. In order to bring the bow to the desired place (in the first example to the frog, in the second to the tip), it has to be pulled faster. In some cases, notes of shorter duration must be played with a long bowstroke by pulling it faster. We say in some cases, because in a sequence of long and short notes the latter do not always require a faster bow. In the next example, the fourth note also requires the entire length of the bow and must begin at the tip; the bow is already close to the tip since the two short notes are executed beforehand with a short or half-bow stroke at the tip.

If we wanted to make a rule in all these cases, it would have to be as follows: if an odd number of short note values precedes a long note value, the last of the short note values must be played with a faster bow.

The following exercises contain the most common combinations of notes of unequal duration. The notes that require faster bowing are marked with an “NB”¹ at the top; the player will be able to best convince himself of the correctness of the given rules. The exercises are written for the A- and C-strings, but should also be studied on the D- and G-strings. The long notes (half note, dotted half note) should be practiced at first with the whole bow, the quarter notes with half the bow. The player should then study the same exercises, playing the half notes with half bows and the quarter notes with short bowstrokes. First, draw the half-bow from the frog to the middle (with the quarter notes alternately at the frog and in the middle). Then, draw a half-bow from the middle of the bow to the tip (with the quarter notes alternately at the middle and at the tip). The eighth notes are always played with short bowstrokes, either at the frog, near the tip, or in the middle.

Example on an open string

Example in first position

Transition of the Bow from One String to Another

The Wrist

Crossing from one string to another is done, as mentioned earlier, by turning the hand slightly: movement to the right brings the bow from a higher to a lower string; conversely, a turn to the left serves to transition from a lower to a higher string. The distances between the strings are so relatively small that given the right bow pressure, just a small turn of the hand is enough to bring the bow from one string to the other. While this is of great importance to an experienced player, it presents many difficulties for a beginner, who does not have control of the bow and can easily and inadvertently bump into other strings. For example, the beginner will find it difficult to play on the D- and G-strings, since they both have other strings to the right and left. This does not give the bow movement much leeway. On the A- and C-strings, the bow at least has more freedom to one side, meaning that it is much easier to play on these strings.

When studying the following exercises and examples, the player should try to make turning the hand as easy and casual as possible and avoid any stiffness of the wrist.

Note: The execution of similar figures, especially at a fast pace, is a special case about which I would like to add a few words here, since to my knowledge it has not yet been adequately explained.

Every player knows that figures like this a are easy to play if they begin on an up-bow, but uncomfortable on a down-bow.

Figures like b are easy to begin on a down-bow and uncomfortable on an up-bow.

The reason for both lies in what we have already observed about bending and turning the hand. For a short bowstroke, the bow is guided almost exclusively by the wrist: the down-bow by a turn of the hand to the right, the up-bow through a left turn. At the same time, a string crossing occurs by turning the hand: to the right for crossing from a higher to a lower string, and to the left for crossing from a lower to a higher string. If both movements happen in one direction, then the hand can easily execute them; conversely, if the hand has to bend in opposing directions, it is of course uncomfortable. The hand has to perform these opposing movements in figure a if it starts on a down-bow and in figure b if it starts on an up-bow. With a, the hand bends to the right on the down-bow, but at the same time it has to open for the crossing to the higher string, and vice versa at b.

Exercises on 2 Strings

Exercises on 3 Strings

Example for 2 Strings

NB. In cases when you have to play a melodic perfect fifth with one finger, it is a good idea to put the finger over both strings at once. Try to align it so that it is parallel to the bridge and the nut.

Example for 3 Strings

Preparation for Scales

String Crossings on Notes of Unequal Duration

The following exercises and examples study string crossings on unequal note values. The player must account for the whole-bow, half-bow, and short strokes, and also for the bow speed rules. The “NB” above notes requiring a fast bow-speed is now omitted; the player himself can figure out which notes require it according to the rules. It is a good idea to look through every example before playing and to write “NB” in the relevant places.

2 Examples of String Crossing

on notes of unequal duration

Connection of Several Notes Within a Bow (Slurs)

The connection of several notes on a bow, the so-called slur, should not really add anything new to the rules for bowing. Each slur or group of notes with the sign means, more or less, a long, held note. All combinations of slurred and unslurred notes fall into the simple bowing patterns that the player will recognize from Article VII. We have illustrated this in the following exercises showing the upper line in small note values.

And yet, the beginner, who can play with a melodious tone in familiar passages, forfeits much of it as soon as he has to perform faster figures. A figure such as this:

requires nothing more from the bow than this:

In reality, however, the player will make a less-good tone in the first example.

We could explain this—leaving aside for now the changes in tone caused by the pressure of the left-hand fingers on the strings—by stating the fact that in the first figure, the player will be focusing their attention almost exclusively on the left hand at the expense of the right. I have often observed on students that their bow’s contact point, bow direction, and ability to regulate cantilena stop working as soon as the left hand has to perform anything fast. The bow usually moves closer to the fingerboard, and because of this the strength of the tone decreases. The direction of the bow also becomes less controlled; often, it moves laterally from the fingerboard to the bridge and vice versa. This creates a number of extraneous noises, such as a hissing sound, which affects the quality of tone not a little. It is therefore not enough just to advise the learner that sound is one of the most difficult tasks of cello playing.

Exercises in Slurs on One String

Exercises with Alternating Slurred and Separate Bows

Note: the notes in small type indicate the distribution of the bow.

The following examples are only notated on one string, but the learner should perform them on the other three strings too.

2 Examples of Slurs on One String

Exercises for String Crossing in Slurs

(Execute alternately in half bows and short bowstrokes in the three parts of the bow mentioned previously.)

Exercises for String Crossings in Slurs, with Different Types of Strokes

(Can also be played on the G- and D-strings and on the C- and G-strings, following the established rules for bow speed.)

Exercises for String Crossing in Combinations of Slurred and Separate Bows.

(Can also be played on the G- and D-strings and on the C- and G-strings.)

Example for Slurs in String Crossings

2 Examples for Connecting Slurs and Separate Bows in String Crossings

I.

Note: Before playing these two examples, the player should write “NB” according to the previous instructions on notes that require a faster bow.

II.

C, G, and F Major Scales in Slurs

(First, play one bow to a bar, then one bow for two bars, and finally one bow for four bars.)

Slurs over 3 and 4 Strings

The following groups of notes and slur marks are intended for studying slurring over three and four strings. Exercises A and B, notated for the A-, D-, and G-strings, should be played in a corresponding manner on the D-, G-, and C-strings. The exercises with doubled numbers indicate that these bowings should be practiced alternately on down- and up-bows.

The inconvenience mentioned in Article VIII occurs here to an even greater extent in string crossings over 3 and 4 strings. There are types of bowstrokes that cannot be executed on the down-bow. Others cannot be executed on an up-bow, especially at a fast speed (for example, figure 5 of exercise A on a down-bow).

On 3 Strings

On 4 Strings

Example of Slurred Notes over 3 Strings

Extended Position

In the previous exercises and examples, the interval between adjacent fingers of the left hand was no greater than a half-step. Therefore, the interval reached between the first and fourth fingers was a minor third. Our hand is constructed so that as a rule (with few exceptions) we do not stretch more than a half-step between the second and third fingers or between the third and fourth fingers. However, we can stretch a major third between the first and fourth fingers using extended position. The hand position we have practiced up until now is called closed hand position, but by moving the first finger back by a half-step–with the thumb and the other fingers staying precisely in their previous places–the hand can stretch into an extended position.

Exercises for Extended Position

Examples for Extended Position

Exercises Alternating Between Closed and Extended Position

The player must ensure that when moving the first finger up and down, the thumb and hand do not alter their position.

It is best not to change the position of the fingers, and to let them stay on the string. For example, in nos. 1, 2, and 8, the second finger stays on the string. In nos, 3, 4, and 7, the third finger stays on the string. In nos. 5 and 6, the fourth finger stays on the string.

Extended position allows us to play the notes D-flat, A-flat, and B-flat in first position, which enables the execution of some scales with double flat.

Examples with alternating close and extended hand position

Part Two: Positions and Position Shifts

The Concept of Positions

The exercises and examples thus far did not go beyond this note on each string:

The range of pitches on each string was as follows:

The range of the cello, as well as of the individual strings, is much larger. However, the fingers have to play higher¹ on the string than they have done up until now, meaning that the hand must change its location on the fingerboard. These changes of location are called positions, and there are two types: 1) “Neck position,” where the thumb touches the neck of the cello, as before, and 2) “thumb position,” where the thumb touches the string as an independent finger. For now, we will focus on the first type, where the basic rule is that the thumb always maintains a place on the neck of the cello opposite the first and second fingers.

If we take the first finger from the lowest possible position (by the nut) on the A-string and keep moving up by a half step with the thumb opposing the finger, we get seven positions:

By the time you get to the seventh location, where the first finger touches an E on the A-string, the thumb has reached the limit of the neck position. If the first finger were to move further, for example to an F, the thumb could not move with it, as this would deviate from the rule that always determines the position of the thumb in relation to the first and second finger. We will discuss these deviations later.

The seven locations on the four strings, and their corresponding fingered pitches, are as follows:

[A-Saite = A-string; D-Saite = D-string; G-Saite = G-string; C-Saite = C-string [“Position ½: enharmonisch, als erniedrigte Position I zu betrachten” = “Half position: pitches can respelled enharmonically. Regarded as a ‘low first position.’”] [“Position I: als erhöhte Position I zu betrachen” = “First position: regarded as ‘high first position.’”] [“Position I ½: enharmonisch, als erniedrigte Position II zu betrachen” = “1 ½ position: pitches can be respelled enharmonically; considered as a’“low second position.’”] [“Position II” = “Second position”] [Position III” = “Third position”] [“Position III ½: enharmonisch, also erniedrigte Position IV zu betrachten” = “3 ½ position: considered a “high third position,” or, if enharmonically respelled, a ‘low fourth position.’”] [“Position IV” = “Fourth position]”

In exercises in the various positions, we begin with fourth position. It is the easiest to find, as the thumb has a specific place at the lower end of the neck of the cello. The player needs to take into account from now on that the higher the position, the smaller the distance between the individual fingers. In very high positions, the spaces between the fingers become so small that one finger has to be placed on the other—one finger has to give way to the other in order to play the intervals perfectly in tune. In fourth position, the fingers sit freely alongside each other, but touch each other’s sides.

Fourth Position

Exercises in closed hand position

Example

If you move the first finger back a half-step, keeping the thumb and other fingers in their previous places, you get the same kind of extension as in first position.

Exercises with Extensions

Example in Extended Position

Example with Alternating Closed and Extended Position

Shifting from First to Fourth Position and Vice Versa

Shifting from one position to another is done by sliding the thumb on the neck of the cello. The fingers have their own roles. It is very easy if the first note of the new position is played with the same finger as the last note of the previous position, as in this example:

Here, the thumb on the neck of the cello and the fingers on the strings slide quickly and easily from one position to another. It is more difficult if the first note of the following position is played with a different finger from the last note of the previous position. In such cases, with a few exceptions, we can determine a basic rule that the finger already on the string slides into the new position without leaving the string, and either stays in the place it has reached or is quickly lifted. This depends on whether the note in the new position is played with a higher- or lower-numbered finger, but the “new” finger has to fall into place at the moment the new position is reached. Therefore, in a shift involving two fingers, one has to slide and the other drop onto the string. According to the above rule, we would have to drop the finger that is starting the new position.

The reverse is not absolutely forbidden, as the player sometimes achieves an expressive glissando that way. However, the learner is advised not to deviate from the rules at the beginning; the rules help achieve precision in playing and avoids many redundant or ugly-sounding glissandi.

We will now take a closer look at individual instances of shifting:

1) when the shift occurs on the same finger, and

2) when there is an open string between the two positions, for example:

In this example, only the thumb shifts into the new position. The finger that plays first in the new position (E in the first measure, B and F in the third, D in the fifth, G in the sixth, B in the seventh) drops onto the string at the moment the thumb reaches the new position. If the finger were to touch the string too early, there will be one of the ugly glissandi mentioned above.

3) If the first note of the new position is fingered with a higher-numbered finger than the last note of the previous position, for example:

Here, the first finger shifts to its appointed place in fourth position, namely to the E. At the moment when this note is reached, the second finger falls on the F (in example A), or the third finger on the F-sharp (example B), or the fourth finger on the G (example C).

Here, the second finger shifts to the F in fourth position. At the moment this note is reached, the third finger drops onto the F-sharp (example D), or onto the fourth finger on the G (example E).

In example F, the third finger shifts onto the F-sharp in fourth position, and at the moment when this note is reached, the fourth finger drops onto the G.

In example G, the first finger shifts down from fourth to first position on the B. At the moment when this note is reached, the second finger drops onto the C. In example H, the third finger drops onto C-sharp. In example I, the fourth finger drops onto D.

In example K, the second finger shifts down to C in first position. The third finger then drops onto C-sharp. In example L, the fourth finger drops onto D.

In example M, the third finger slides down to the C-sharp in first position, and the fourth finger drops onto D.

4) The first note in the new position is played with a lower-numbered finger than the last note of the old position. In this case, in addition to the previous instructions, the shifting finger—which until then kept its place in the new position—now needs to be lifted in order not to “cover” the next finger.

If the first note of the following position is played with a lower-numbered finger than the last note of the previous position. In this case, in addition to what has been said earlier, the sliding finger, which until then maintained its place in the new position, must now be lifted in order not to cover the subsequent lower-numbered finger.

In this case, we have to differentiate between going from a higher to a lower position, and vice versa:

a) Shifting from a higher to a lower position

In example N, the fourth finger shifts down to the D in first position; the moment it reaches this note, it is no longer needed. The first finger drops onto B. In example O, the second finger drops onto C. In example P, the third finger drops onto C-sharp.

In example R, the third finger shifts down to the C-sharp in first position, and is no longer needed. The first finger drops onto B. In example S, the second finger drops onto C-natural.

In example T, the second finger shifts down to C in first position and is lifted. The first finger drops onto B.

b) Shifting from a lower position to a higher one (see note)¹

In example U, the fourth finger shifts to G in fourth position and is lifted. The first finger drops onto E. In example V, the second finger drops onto F. In example W, the third finger drops onto F-sharp.

In example X, the third finger shifts to F-sharp in fourth position and is lifted. The first finger drops onto E. In example Y, the second finger drops onto F.

In example Z, the second finger shifts to F in fourth position and is lifted. The first finger drops onto E.

These rules for shifting between first and fourth position remain the same regardless of whether the hand is in closed or extended position.

Since the given examples were exclusively in closed position, here are some examples in extended position:

Change of Position Across More Than One String

The rules established remain the same whether the new position is on the same or on a different string. Here, too, a distinction is made between the four different cases of change of position listed above, namely:

1) if the shift is done with the same finger,

2) if there is an open string between both positions,

3) if the first note in the new position is fingered with a higher-numbered finger than the last note of the old position,

4) if the first note of the new position is fingered with a lower-numbered finger than the last note of the old position.

In contrast to the corresponding shifts on one string, the shifts using one finger across two different strings are the most difficult and should be avoided by beginners.

These shifts follow the same rules as for shifts on one string, except that the player must not neglect to notice that the shifting finger only shifts on the string on which it is already located. For example, in example 3, first line, measure 1, the first finger shifts from E to A in fourth position on the D-string, and the second finger drops down in fourth position on the A-string. In example 4, first line, measure 1, the second finger shifts from F to B-flat in fourth position on the D-string, while the first finger drops down on E on the A-string. In example 4, line 2, measure 1, the second finger shifts from C to the F in fourth position on the A-string, while the first finger drops onto A on the D-string.

When doing position shifts across two strings, the main difference in the last example (when the first note of the new position is played with a lower-numbered finger than the last note of the old position) the shifting finger is lifted when the player reaches the new position, so as not to cover the new, lower-numbered finger. Since the playing fingers are on different strings, the new finger does not get covered by the old finger.

Examples of Position Shifts between First and Fourth Position

1) The first note of the new position is played with the same finger as the last note of the old position.

2) Shifting across an open string

3) The shifting finger is lower-numbered and remains on the string

See note²

4) The higher-numbered finger executes the shift, then lifts when the new finger comes down on the string.

Exercise for Position Shifts in Extended Position

Exercise for Position Shifts on Multiple Strings

1 ½ Position

We study 1 ½ position after fourth position, partly because it is easy to find (the hand and thumb shift a half-step up from first position), and partly because we can consider it a “raised first position.” This is because it makes it possible to play a major third, and thus to play the major scales of D, A, and E without significantly leaving first position.

The player puts the first finger in place in first position, then goes up a half-step with the thumb and hand so that the first finger is in C on the A-string (enharmonically spelled as B-sharp). This can be referred to as raised first position or as lowered second position.

Exercises in 1 ½ Position – Closed Hand Position

Example in Raised First Position

Example in Lowered Second Position

Extensions in 1 ½ Position

This is similar to what we do in the first and fourth position. We move the first finger back by a half-step, creating an extension in 1 ½ position—which, in this case, is usually the raised first position.

Exercises in 1 ½ Position with Extensions

Example in Extended Position

Extensions in 1 ½ position make it possible to play the scales of D, A, and E major without the first finger having to change its place in first position: it just moves the thumb up a half-step, if necessary, to facilitate the extension.

[“D-dur” = “D major”] [“Position I ½, gr. Spannung” = “1 ½ position, extended”] [“Position I, kl. Spannung (Daumen rückt einen halben Ton zurück)” = “First position, closed (thumb moves back by a half-step)”] [“Position I ½, gr. Spannung” = “1 ½ position, extended”] [“A-dur” = “A major”] [“Position I ½, gr. Spannung” = “1 ½ position, extended”] [“Position I, kleine Spannung” = “First position, closed”] [Position I ½, grosse Spannung” = “1 ½ position, extended”] [“E-dur” = “E major”]

Half Position

The player puts the first finger in its place in first position, then moves the thumb and hand back a half-step so that the first finger on the A-string goes from B to A-sharp (or, enharmonically respelled, B-flat); in the second case, the half position could be viewed as a lowered first position.

[“A-Saite” = “A-string”; “D-Saite” = “D-string”; “G-Saite” = “G-string”; “C-Saite” = “C-string”] [“enharmonisch” = enharmonic respelling] [“Erniedrigte 1ste Position” = “lowered first position”]

Exercises in Half Position

Example in Half Position

It goes without saying that in half position, extended position is not possible, because the first finger is already positioned at the nut and therefore does not move back.

Second Position

If you move your hand and thumb up from first position by a whole step, you get to second position.

Exercises in Second Position with Closed Hand Position

Example in Closed Hand Position

Exercises in Extended Position

Example in Extended Position

Third Position

If you move your hand and thumb back from fourth position by a whole step, you get to third position.

Exercises in Third Position with Closed Hand Position

Example in Closed Hand Position

Extensions in Third Position

[“enharmonisch” = enharmonically respelled] [“als erhöhte Position II zu betrachten” = “to be regarded as a raised second position”]

Exercises with Extensions

Example with Extensions

3 ½ Position

If you take your thumb and hand a half-step back from fourth position, you get to 3 ½ position.

Exercises in 3 ½ Position with Closed Hand Position

Example with closed hand position

Exercises for Extensions in 3 ½ Position

Example with Extensions

4 ½ Position

The 4 ½ position using a closed hand position is as follows:

[“oder enharmonisch” = “enharmonically respelled”] [“mit grosser Spannung” = “with extensions”]

This position deviates from the previous positions discussed, because the thumb (as mentioned in Article I of this section) cannot move with the first finger. Consequently, it cannot oppose the first and second fingers.

In spite of this, the position is listed here partly because it is similar to the other positions mentioned. The fourth finger is still used (this finger must not play a note higher than G-sharp or A-flat without the use of the thumb). Furthermore, the extension here can be made comfortably by stretching the second finger up from fourth position.

To illustrate this, recall (as was stated in an article in the previous section on extensions) that the stretch between the first and second fingers can easily span a whole step. This extension can be done in two ways: either by moving the first finger back, as previously discussed, or by moving the second finger up.

Of these two cases, the first kind of extension is decidedly the easier. The difference is that in the first case, the thumb is closer to the second finger; in the second case, it is closer to the first finger. In lower position (half, first, second, etc.), the distance between the fingers is relatively large enough that the stretch, as in B), is uncomfortable for an average-sized hand and almost impossible for a small one. This is why it is appropriate to transfer the extension, as in (B), to the higher position, where the thumb (being half a tone higher) comes closer to the second finger and makes the stretch easier.

(In some schools of cello playing, the following fingering counts as half position. A similar fingering: counts as first position, etc.)

In fourth position, however, the distances between the fingers are so much smaller that an extension such as that in B), with the thumb closer to the first finger, can be grasped with ease, and is obtained in fourth position by moving the second finger up, using this fingering:

The fingerings in examples 5-8 are the same as those set forth above for extensions in 4 ½ position. In this way, we could regard 4 ½ position as part of fourth position, so its place in this section is justified.

Exercises in Closed Hand Position

Example in Closed Hand Position

Exercises with Extensions

Example with Extensions

Position Shifts

The rules given in Article III of this section concerning shifts between the first and fourth positions remain the same for shifts between other positions. The following exercises are intended to familiarize the player with shifting between various positions, taking into account the four cases mentioned above. (The positions are labeled half, first, 1 ½, second, third, 3 ½, fourth, 4 ½. These numbers are to be understood as closed hand positions. If extensions are added, so is the abbreviation “gr.”)

Position Shifts on One String

First Type

The shift is done on the same finger

Second Type

Shifting when there is an open string between the positions

Third Type

The first note of the new position is assigned a higher-numbered finger than the last note of the old position

Fourth Type

The first note of the new position is assigned a lower-numbered finger than the last note of the old position.

Position Shifts Across More than One String

Example on One String

Example on More than One String

Part Three: The Higher Positions (Excepting Thumb Position)

Higher Positions in General

The construction of our hand allows us a large stretch between the thumb and the first finger. This makes it possible to move the first finger higher than fourth position, while the thumb can go no further up. The positions we can get to in this way are called “higher positions” and can be described as follows:

[“Der erste Finger liegt auf f, b, es, as” = “The first finger touches F, B-flat, E-flat, and A-flat”] [“Der erste Finger liegt auf fis, h, e, a” = “The first finger touches F-sharp, B, E, and A”] [Der erste Finger liegt auf g, c, f, b” = “The first finger touches G, C, F, and B”] [“Der erste Finger liegt auf gis, cis, fis, h” = “The first finger touches G-sharp, C-sharp, F-sharp, and B”] [Der erste Finger liegt auf a, d, g, c” = “The first finger touches A, D, g, and C”]

The player will have noticed that the numbered positions correspond to those of the major scale of the open string. Therefore, the first finger is always on a scale-specific interval in the positions with whole numbers.

[“C-Saite” = “C-string”] [“C-dur” = “C major”] [“G-Saite” = G-string”] [“G-dur” = “G major”] [“D-Saite” = “D-string”] [“D-dur” = “D major”] [“A-Saite” = “A major”]

The half-steps between the scale degrees (tonic and second, second and third, fourth and fifth, fifth and sixth, and sixth and seventh) therefore correspond to the respective half-positions: half, 1 ½, 3 ½, 4 ½, 5 ½.

The higher positions differ significantly from those discussed in the first two sections, i.e.:

1) Distancing the first finger from the thumb causes the hand to bend to the left. As a result, the fingers also move away from the string to the left. This gives the whole hand a different shaping over the strings. This mostly affects the fourth finger, which suffers the greatest deviation from the thumb and is bent so far to the left of the string that it can no longer touch it. This is why we do not use the fourth finger on pitches higher than G-sharp or A-flat on the A-string, or on corresponding pitches on the other strings. The player therefore can only use three of the fingers in the higher positions.

Note: This rule regarding the fourth finger only really applies on the A-string. If the first finger is playing a G in seventh position on the G-string, the fourth finger can play a D in seventh position on the A-string. This is because, even when bent to the left, it can easily touch the A-string. The following fingering is therefore easy to play with the fourth finger:

2) The distances between the fingers are so much smaller in higher positions that an extension of up to a whole step is possible between the second and third fingers. In this way, more extensions are possible in higher positions. We can play a whole step between the first and second fingers and between the second and third fingers. Consequently, you get four fingerings: (1) a half step between 1 and 2 and another half step between 2 and 3, (2) a whole step between 1 and 2 and a half step between 2 and 3, (3) a half step between 1 and 2 and a whole step between 2 and 3, and (4) a whole step between 1 and 2 and another whole step between 2 and 3. These fingerings are shown on the A-string in seventh position:

[“kl.” = “closed position”] [“gr.” = “extended position”]

There is a fifth scenario, where there is a stretch of one and a half steps between the first and second fingers, which is easily reached. In this case, however, the third finger would be no more than a half-step away from the second finger, since the stretch between the first and third fingers can never be larger than a major third:

[“doppelt gr.” = “double extension”] [“kl.” = “closed position”]

3) The thumb, unlike in previous positions, is no longer opposite the first and second fingers. This situation is hard to regulate in higher positions because it can vary depending on hand size and thumb length. The thumb, which in fourth position partly encircles the neck of the cello, usually moves more to the left when the hand goes into higher positions. In seventh position, therefore, the tip of the thumb touches the point where the fingerboard meets the neck of the cello. As in fourth position, the hand always rests on the upper bout of the cello, thereby giving necessary support to the position.

4 ½ position has already been discussed in the previous section as part of fourth position, but it is also sometimes used as an independent position with the fingering 1-2-3 for the interval of a major third, since otherwise the fourth finger would be on A, D, G, C.

The five fingerings discussed appear in 4 ½ position as follows:

Note: the tones marked “NB” (A, D, G, C) are reached here for the first time. They are at the exact halfway point of each string, and also sound when the finger touches the string lightly at the relevant point. These so-called “harmonic tones” will be discussed in Part Two. Harmonics (marked “0”) are easy to play, even if the finger does not hit the spot exactly. They also continue to sound for a short time after the finger is lifted. This makes it easier to move into a new position from one of the harmonics, as in the following figure:

If the A is lightly touched with the third finger, it sounds absolutely pure, even if the finger has not touched it exactly. (This can be easily confirmed by pressing the finger down.) At the shift to the lower A on the D-string, it is sufficient to lift the third finger and place the first on the A, because the harmonic still sounds after the finger comes off the string.

The following exercises show the five fingerings in the higher positions; then similar fingerings for the shifts between the individual higher positions. The rules given in Article III of the previous section remain the same.

Exercises in 4 ½ Position

Exercises in Fifth Position

Exercises in 5 ½ Position

Exercises in Sixth Position

Exercises in Seventh Position

Exercises in Shifting Between Higher Positions

(These exercises are for the A- and D-strings only, since comparable passages seldom occur on the lower strings.)

Example

Shifts from Lower to Higher Positions

In shifts from lower to higher positions, most of the exceptions to the rules concern the shifting finger and the dropping finger. These exceptions by necessity concern the fourth finger, which cannot play in higher positions.

A shift performed by the “new” finger can sometimes sound good here, especially when (as with an experienced player) it does not begin immediately and the fingers “peel off,” so to speak. In the following figure: the third finger does not shift directly out of first position (i.e. from the C-sharp). The fourth finger begins the shift, and is replaced by the third finger as it is lifted up. Only then does the new finger start the movement up to the high C. This kind of position shift requires great skill, however, to ensure that the lifting of the finger is not heard. The whole thing gives the impression that the third finger is shifting from D to C.

One more instance—which presents many difficulties for the beginner—should be pointed out here. This is the when the “old” note of a shift is muffled in shifts of larger intervals (sixth, seventh, octave, etc.). In the following figure: the notes marked “NB” are often muffled or indistinct, because the beginner is only thinking about the “new” note. A shift of a large interval often begins before the notes are clearly sounding. It is therefore very advisable for beginners to place more emphasis on these notes, and not to think about the shift until the “old” note is clearly established—or even to make it somewhat longer than it is due.

The following examples show all the position shifts between first and seventh positions. The shifts between other positions are done in a similar way.

[“A-Saite” = “A-string”] [“D-Saite” = “D-string”]

Example

Major and Minor Scales in Two Octaves

The learner now knows all of the positions except thumb position, and can now focus on the study of scales—which are the cornerstone of every finger technique. The fingering for all major and minor scales is one and the same. The following should be noted:

If you take the two-octave scale (including the tonic at the top) as a series of 15 notes and divide them into groups of three notes, you get five groups—each bordered by the interval of a third.

[“I. Gruppe” = “First group”; “II. Gruppe” = “Second group”; “III. Gruppe” = “Third group”; “IV. Gruppe” = “Fourth group”; “V. Gruppe” = “Fifth group”] [“grosse Terz” = “Major third”; “kleine Terz” = “Minor third”] [“Hinauf” = “Ascending motion”; “Herunter” = “Descending motion”] [“Cis-moll (melodisch)” = “C-sharp melodic minor”]

The major scale, when broken down in this way, consists of two major and three minor thirds in ascending motion, and the opposite in descending motion. The ascending minor scale consists of alternating minor and major thirds, and in descending motion, three major and two minor thirds. As we know, the interval of a third can be played in any position with the first and fourth fingers: in extended position for the major third, and in closed position for the minor third. In this way, we can find the fingering for all scales if we begin with the first finger; we approach a new position with the first finger after every three notes.

• Fingering for the major scale
  • In ascending motion: 1-2-4, 1-2-4, 1-2-4, 1-2-4, 1-3-4.
  • In descending motion: 4-3-1, 4-2-1, 4-2-1, 4-2-1, 4-2-1.
• Fingering for the minor scale¹
  • In ascending motion: 1-3-4, 1-2-4, 1-2-4, 1-2-4, 1-3-4.
  • In descending motion: 4-2-1, 4-2-1, 4-2-1, 4-3-1, 4-3-1.

Minor thirds are fingered with 1-2-4 or 1-3-4 patterns, depending on position of the half-step. In higher registers, of course, the third finger would play instead of the fourth. The given fingering rule would be absolute for all major and minor scales if there were no open strings. The above fingering, therefore, works for scales in which no open strings can occur.

Aside from the fact that the scales of C and G cannot be fingered with the first finger, the open strings modify the fingering insofar as they make it possible to play some scales entirely and others partly in first position. This is a welcome relief to the beginner, though the advanced player often prefers to avoid open strings because they may stand out from the other notes due to their brighter tone color.

In the following list of all major and minor scales, the fingering above the staff is the usual one. The fingering under the staff—which offers alternative fingerings to open strings—serves as proof that scales containing open strings can also be played according to the finger pattern rule.

In studying scales, it is advisable to visualize the position clearly each time. For example, in E major, the series of positions is as follows:

[“C-Saite” = “C-string”; “G-Saite” = “G-string”; “D-Saite” = “D-string”; “A-Saite” = “A-string”] [“Spannung” = “hand position”; “gr.” = “extended position”; “kl.” = “closed position”]

[“Cis-moll” = “C-sharp minor”] [“Hinauf” = “Ascending motion”; “Herunter” = “Descending motion”] [“C-Saite” = “C-string”; “G-Saite” = “G-string”; “D-Saite” = “D-string”; “A-Saite” = “A-string”] [“Spannung” = “hand position”; “gr.” = “extended position”; “kl.” = “closed position”]

[“C-dur” = “C major”; “A-moll” = “A minor”]

[“G-dur” = “G major”; “E-moll” = “E minor”]

[“D-dur” = “D major”; “H-moll” = “B minor”]

[“A-dur” = “A major”; “Fis-moll” = “F-sharp minor”]

[“E-dur” = “E major”; “Cis-moll” = “C-sharp minor”]

[“H-dur” = “B major”; “Gis-moll” = “G-sharp minor”]

[“F-dur” = “F major”; “D-moll” = “D minor”]

[“B-dur” = “B-flat major”; “G-moll” = “G minor”]

[“Es-dur” = “E-flat major”; “C-moll” = “C minor”]

[“As-dur” = “A-flat major”; “F-moll” = “F minor”]

[“Des-dur” = “D-flat major”; “B-moll” = “B-flat minor”]

[“Ges-dur” = “G-flat major”; “Es-moll” = “E-flat minor”]